Formulation of Active Agent Loaded Activated PLGA Nanoparticles for Targeted Cancer Nano-Therapeutics

ABSTRACT

The present invention includes compositions and methods of making an activated polymeric nanoparticle for targeted drug delivery that includes a biocompatible polymer and an amphiphilic stabilizing agent non-covalently associated with a spacer compound that includes at least one electrophile that selectively reacts with any nucleophilic on a targeting agent and places the targeting agent on the exterior surface of a biodegradable nanoshell, wherein an active agent is loaded with the nanoshell.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of Ser. No. 12/101,929 filed Apr. 11, 2008, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/911,528 filed Apr. 13, 2007, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates in general to the field of active agent loaded particles, and more particularly, to compositions and methods for delivering active agents in PLGA loaded particles.

STATEMENT OF FEDERALLY FUNDED RESEARCH

None.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Without limiting the scope of the invention, its background is described in connection with the delivery of active pharmaceutical agents.

One of the greatest problems associated with molecular therapeutics is delivery of the therapeutic agent to the site of action. For the case of anti-cancer agents such as curcumin there is the necessity to keep the dose at minimal levels for the protection of the patient. The reduction in dose however; may not fully treat the disease. Thus, through the direction of a drug delivery device to a specific site of action via the conjugation of various antibodies more advantageous therapeutic regimes can be developed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention includes compositions and methods of making an activated polymeric nanoparticle for targeted drug delivery that includes a biocompatible polymer and an amphiphilic stabilizing agent non-covalently associated with a spacer compound containing at least one electrophile that selectively reacts with any nucleophile on a targeting agent and places the targeting agent on the exterior surface of a biodegradable nanoshell, wherein an active agent is loaded with the nanoshell. In some embodiments, the nanoshell includes one or more polyesters and one or more amphiphilic stabilizing agents. The polyester is poly-lactic acid, poly-glycolic acid, poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the amphiphilic stabilizing agent is a polyol, e.g., the polyol is polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polypropylenediol, polytetrahydrofuran, and combinations thereof. The nanoshell may encapsulate an active agent, such as a plasmid DNA, siRNA, proteins, small molecules, or anti-cancer agents (e.g., paxlitaxel, curcumin) for controlled intracellular delivery. Using the present invention, the nanoshell composition is used to control the ultimate size and drug delivery rate and/or a targeting agent that selectively targets the nanocarrier to diseased tissue/cells, thereby minimizing whole body dose.

The nanoshell may be loaded with an active agent that combines a conventional radioisotopes and a chemotherapeutic. In another embodiment, the nanoshell is adapted for controlled release of the active agents by pre-determining the polymeric ratios of lactic to glycolic acid. The nanoparticle may also include a spacer compound that is spacer is homofunctional, heterofunctional, multifunctional, monoreactive, bi-reactive or multireactive, water soluble, water-insoluble or partially water soluble. Examples of targeting agents for use with the present invention include an antibody, a small molecule, a peptide, a carbohydrate, a protein, a nucleic acid, an aptamer, a second nanoparticle, a cytokine, a chemokine, a lymphokine, a receptor, a lipid, a lectin, a ferrous metal, a magnetic particle, a linker, an isotope and combinations thereof. Other active agents may include an anti-cancer drug, an antibiotic, an antiviral, an antifungal, an antihelminthic, a nutrient, a small molecule, a siRNA, an antioxidant, and an antibody. In one specific example the active agent is an anticancer drug, e.g., curcumin or a derivative thereof.

The present invention also includes a method of making a targetable, loadable-nanoparticle by forming a first emulsion comprising a biocompatible polymer in a first solvent and an active agent by, e.g., mixing, sonication, vortexing or other blending; preparing a second solution comprising an amphiphilic stabilizing agent in water, a non-solvent used for control of the ultimate size of the nanoparticle and a spacer compound containing at least one electrophile; forming a second emulsion by mixing the first emulsion and the second solution by, e.g., sonication, vortexing or other blending methods to form activated, loaded nanoparticles with non-covalently associated spacer compounds; separating the activated, loaded nanoparticles; and binding a targeting agent to the particle at one or more electrophiles on the noncovalently associated spacer compounds. Examples of spacer compounds spacer is homofunctional, heterofunctional, multifunctional, monoreactive, bi-reactive or multireactive, water soluble, water-insoluble or partially water soluble. The targeting agent for the nanoparticle may be an antibody, a small molecule, a peptide, a carbohydrate, a protein, a nucleic acid, an aptamer, a second nanoparticle, a cytokine, a chemokine, a lymphokine, a receptor, a lipid, a lectin, a ferrous metal, a magnetic particle, a linker, an isotope and combinations thereof. Active agents for use with the method of the present invention include, e.g., an anti-cancer drug, an antibiotic, an antiviral, an antifungal, an antihelminthic, a nutrient, a small molecule, a siRNA, an antioxidant, and an antibody. The nanoshell may also include one or more polyesters and/or one or more amphiphilic stabilizing agents. Polyesters for use with the present invention may include poly-lactic acid, poly-glycolic acid, poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid, and combinations thereof. One non-limiting example of an amphiphilic stabilizing agent is, e.g., a polyol, polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polypropylenediol, polytetrahydrofuran, poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) triblock copolymers, and combinations thereof. The nanoshell may encapsulate plasmid DNA, siRNA, proteins, small molecules or anti-cancer agents (e.g., paxlitaxel, curcumin) for controlled intracellular delivery and/or used to control the ultimate size and drug delivery rate. The targeting agent may selectively target the nanocarrier to diseased tissue/cells, thereby minimizing whole body dose and in some embodiments, it may be attached to radiolabeled conjugated antibodies on the surface of the nanoparticle. The nanoshell may be loaded with an active agent combines a conventional radioisotopes and a chemotherapeutic and/or adapted for controlled release of the active agents by pre-determining the polymeric ratios of lactic to glycolic acid. In one specific example the active agent is an anticancer drug, e.g., curcumin or a derivative thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention, reference is now made to the detailed description of the invention along with the accompanying figures and in which:

FIG. 1 is a graph that shows the Curcumin release from PLGA nanoparticles;

FIG. 2 is a graph of a colorimetric assay for antibody release from activated nanoparticles;

FIG. 3 is a Western blot analysis of the nanoparticle fraction from IgG conjugated nanoparticles;

FIG. 4 is a Western blot analysis of the supernatant fraction from IgG conjugated nanoparticles;

FIG. 5 is a Transmission Electron Micrograph (TEM image of BS³ activated PLGA nanoparticles conjugated to murine Thy-1 antibody;

FIG. 6 is a Western blot analysis of Thy-1 labeled nanoparticles;

FIGS. 7A to 7C are micrographs of exposed retinal pigment epithelial cells to Thy-1 conjugated nanoparticles;

FIGS. 8A and 8B are Western Blots for variation of cross-linking reagents of the present invention;

FIGS. 9A through 9H shows the PSMA expression in human prostate tissue sections using the present invention;

FIG. 10 is a TIRF analysis of zymed mouse anti-PSMA antibody specificity under co-culture conditions using the present invention; and

FIGS. 11A and 11B show the PSMA targeted nanoparticles display preferential uptake to LNCaP C4-2 cells over PC-3 cells using the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

While the making and using of various embodiments of the present invention are discussed in detail below, it should be appreciated that the present invention provides many applicable inventive concepts that can be embodied in a wide variety of specific contexts. The specific embodiments discussed herein are merely illustrative of specific ways to make and use the invention and do not delimit the scope of the invention.

To facilitate the understanding of this invention, a number of terms are defined below. Terms defined herein have meanings as commonly understood by a person of ordinary skill in the areas relevant to the present invention. Terms such as “a”, “an” and “the” are not intended to refer to only a singular entity, but include the general class of which a specific example may be used for illustration. The terminology herein is used to describe specific embodiments of the invention, but their usage does not delimit the invention, except as outlined in the claims.

Detailed methodology for the formulation of activated curcumin loaded nanoparticles for secondary conjugation of biologically active agents (e.g. antibodies).

Table 1 (below) shows formulation parameters for the generation of curcumin loaded nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were made using ethanol or methanol as a non-solvent. A decrease in loading efficiency is observed as the concentration of curcumin is increased. There is a minimal variation in the size of the nanoparticles. The inclusion of the active agent does not affect the size or loading capacity of the nanoparticles.

TABLE 1 Curcumin Particle Active Concentration Loading size Solvent agent Antibody (mg/mL) Efficiency (nm) Ethanol − − 0.0 n/a 144-409 Ethanol − − 0.5 98.4% 121-331 Ethanol − − 1.0 96.4% 144-331 Ethanol − − 2.0 91.3% 144-486 Methanol − − 0.0 n/a 121-289 Methanol − − 0.5 96.9% 121-409 Methanol − − 1.0 88.5% 121-578 Methanol − − 2.0 82.3% 144-578 Ethanol + − 0.0 n/a 121-344 Ethanol + − 1.0 95.2% 121-344 Ethanol + + 1.0 94.8% ?

FIG. 1 is a graph that shows the rate of curcumin release from PLGA nanoparticles. 9 mg/mL of curcumin loaded nanoparticles were distributed into eppendorf tubes and placed on a rotisserie at 37° C. (final nanoparticle concentration of 1 mg/mL per tube). Daily measurements were taken for a period of 9 days. Curcumin concentration was determined by the absorbance at 430 nm.

FIG. 2 is a graph of a colorimetric assay for antibody release from activated nanoparticles. 5 mg/mL of activated nanoparticles were conjugated to murine IgG. 1 mg aliquots were distributed into 1.5 mL eppendorf tubes and placed on a rotisserie at 37° C. At time points of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 days aliquots were removed for analysis. Antibody present in the supernatant (free antibody fraction) is seen to increase over the given time course. Antibody present within the nanoparticle fraction (bound non-covalently to the nanoparticle) is seen to decrease.

FIG. 3 is a Western blot analysis of the nanoparticle fraction from IgG conjugated nanoparticles. Lane 1 represents native, denatured mouse IgG. Lanes 2-6 are IgG conjugated nanoparticles from time points of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 days respectively. Lane 7 represents unactivated nanoparticles. Lane 8 represents unconjugated active nanoparticles.

FIG. 4 is also a Western blot analysis of the supernatent fraction (free antibody) from IgG conjugated nanoparticles. Lane 1 represents native, denatured mouse IgG. Lanes 2-6 are IgG conjugated nanoparticles from time points of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 days respectively.

FIG. 5 is a TEM image of BS3 activated PLGA nanoparticles conjugated to murine Thy-1 antibody. Nanoparticles are visualized as white spherical globules. Murine Thy-1 antibody is visualized on the surface of the nanoparticles through reaction with anti-mouse colloidal gold labeled secondary antibody (seen as the black specks on the surface of the nanoparticles).

FIG. 6 shows a Western blot analysis of Thy-1 labeled nanoparticles. Lane 1 is native, denatured unconjugated murine Thy-1 shown at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL. Lanes 2-6 represent increasing concentration of BS3 activated nanoparticles to which murine Thy-1 has been conjugated (11.5, 18.4, 23.0, 27.6, 34.5 μg of nanoparticles respectively). A linear increase in the presence of Thy-1 is observed as the concentration of nanoparticles is increased. Lane 7 represents activated nanoparticles indicating the migration of nanoparticles into the gel. The presence of a single band is indicative of the ability of the activated nanoparticles to selectively conjugate the secondary murine HRP antibody.

FIGS. 7A to 7C shows the effects of exposure of retinal pigment epithelial cells to Thy-1 conjugated nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were loaded with sulforhodamine 101 for visualization (red). Laser confocal microscopy using a z-stack was performed 90 minutes post exposure to targeted nanoparticles. FIGS. 7A, 7B, and 7C are orthogonal cross-sections at 8, 10 and 13 micrometers within the cells. The yellow arrows indicate sites of nanoparticle concentration on the cell surface (red hot spots). The blue arrows indicate the absence of these hot spots as the focal place is increased or decreased.

Materials. Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) 50:50; i.v. 1.13 dL/g was purchased from Absorbable Polymers International (Pelham, Ala.). Poly(vinyl alcohol) M.W. 30,000-70,000, sulforhodamine 101, ethanol, methanol, and chloroform were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.). Curcumin was a gift from Dr. Shubash Chauhan, South Dakota Medical Center. Thy-1 murine antibody was a gift from Dr. Neeraj Agarwal (UNTHSC at Fort Worth, Tex.). Mouse IgG was purchased from Promega (San Louis Obispo, Ca.).

Nanoparticle formulation. Nanoparticle formulation was carried out through a modified double emulsion technique. In this technique 30 mg of poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) was first dissolved in 1 mL of chloroform at 4° C. Concurrently, 2 mL of a 2% w/v poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/distilled deionized water solution was formed. Upon solubilization of the PVA in water, 1 mL of ethanol or methanol was added as a non-solvent to the PVA solution. The active agent bis-succinimidyl suberate (BS3) was then added to the PVA/ethanol solution at a concentration of 1 mM and stirred. A stock solution of 10 mg/ml curcumin was formed by the dissolution of curcumin into water under alkaline conditions using 0.5 M NaOH. Curcumin was added to the PLGA/Chloroform solution at concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/mL per 150 microliters of aqueous volume. Formation of the primary emulsion was done by vortexing the curcumin-PLGA/cholorform solution for 20 seconds, followed by tip sonication at 55 W for 1 minute on a Branson Sonifier model W-350 (Branson, Danbury, Conn.). The primary emulsion was then added to the BS3/PVA/ethanol solution to initiate formation of the secondary emulsion. Completion of the secondary emulsion was done through vortexing for 20 seconds and tip sonication at 55 W for 2 minutes. Stabile activated nanoparticles were then aliquoted into 1.5 mL Eppendorf tubes and centrifuged for 5 minutes at 18,000 g. The chloroform and residual PVA supernatant was aspirated off and particles were resuspended by tip sonication in 1 mL of PBS pH 7.2. Following resuspension, nanoparticles were placed at −80° C. for 1 hour and lyophilized overnight. Lyophilization was carried out in an ATR FD 3.0 system (ATR Inc, St. Louis, Mo.) under a vacuum of 250 μT. After lyophilization nanoparticles were stored at 4° C. Upon use nanoparticles were weighed into eppendorf tubes and resuspended in 1 mL of PBS pH 7.2.

Size variations using alternate non-solvents are observed when nanoparticles were made with ethanol and methanol at the three concentrations. Greater than 90% entrapment was observed at concentrations of 1 mg/ml or less. There also appears to be a strong burst release. The observations made are in accordance with well known phenomenon regarding the release of small molecules from poly lactic-co-glycolic nanocarriers.

Conjugation of Thy-1 and IgG to the nanoparticle surface. To 5 mg of resuspended active nanoparticles, 250 microliters of murine Thy-1 (0.5 mg/ml) was added and the reaction was allowed to proceed overnight at 4° C. Nanoparticles were then either used immediately for study or were frozen at −20° C. to prevent significant breakdown of the PLGA polymer.

For the conjugation of murine IgG to the surface of the particle, 9 mg of activated nanoparticles were resuspended in PBS pH 7.2. Subsequently, 250 microliters of murine IgG (0.2 mg/mL) was then added and the reaction allowed to proceed at 4° C. overnight.

An activated polymeric nanoparticle was formulated to be used as a targeted drug delivery system. This system allows us to selectively attach any nucleophilic ligand (antibody, receptor proteins, localization sequences, organic molecules) to the exterior surface of a biodegradable nanoshell. The nanoshell is made from poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid an FDA approved polymer. Due to the properties of the nanoshell we can encapsulate plasmid DNA, siRNA, proteins, small molecules or chemotherapeutics (i.e. paxlitaxel and curcumin) for controlled intracellular delivery. We can also vary the formulation parameters of the nanoshell to control the ultimate size and drug delivery rate. Targeting of the nanocarriers allows for localization to the diseased tissue/cells thus minimizing whole body dose. It is also possible to radiolabel conjugated antibodies on the surface of the nanoparticle. This would allow for a combinatorial anti-cancer treatment strategy utilizing both conventional radioisotopes and chemotherapeutics. Controlled release of the therapeutic agents allows optimization of therapeutic strategies for different clinical maladies.

The compositions and methods of the present invention are versatile, allowing the user to select from a number of solvents to control the ultimate size of the nanoshell (for example, to improve cellular uptake properties for the nanoparticles, fairly well known to individuals skilled in the art of nanoparticles).

Control release properties were achieved by shifting the polymeric ratios of lactic to glycolic acid (known to those skilled in the art of nanoparticles). The particles are stabile when resuspended in isotonic buffers for a limited time or dehydrated at 4° C. indefinitely

The present invention differs from existing technologies due to the fashion in which we target our particles. The most common method for the attachment of ligands to polymeric nanoparticles is through the grafting of poly ethylene glycol (PEG) to the PLGA polymeric strands thus making a PLGA-PEG copolymer. Linkage is performed to the PEG molecules using standard amine reactive chemistries. Our method generates an active particle for ligand attachment through the inclusion of a commercially available crosslinking agents (BS3, Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford, Ill.) present during the formation of the secondary emulsion. The BS3 present within the secondary emulsion solution is sequestered through hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions between the PLGA emulsion and the PVA stabilizing agent also present in the secondary emulsion solution.

Another advantage of the compositions and methods of the present invention is that any biologically active molecule with a nucleophilic group can be attached to the nanoshells and/or nanoparticles through reaction against an exposed NHS ester moiety (i.e., electrophile), leading to an unlimited range of targeted particles for therapeutic purposes.

Role of prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) as a cellular marker during the progression of prostate cancer: Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is a type II integral membrane glycoprotein initially characterized by the mAb 7E11 in LNCaP cells. (11,12) PSMA consists of a short 18 amino acid intracellular segment, a transmembrane region composed of 24 amino acids, and an extensive extracellular C terminal domain of 706 amino acids. (13) The functional role of PSMA is currently under investigation, however; the structure of PSMA is identical to glutamate carboxypeptidase and folate hydrolase I.

PSMA can be internalized upon antigen recognition. In correlation with prostate cancer progression, PSMA is highly expressed in benign prostate secretory-acinar epithelium, prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) and prostate adenocarcinoma. Investigation of the expression levels of PSMA have found that expression is greatest in high grade PIN and in HRPC cancers. Thus, as prostate cancer progresses, PSMA expression has been shown to be increased, making targeted therapeutic applications for the treatment of prostate cancer based upon PSMA an attractive treatment option. An important factor associated with PSMA expression is that PSMA has been found to be expressed only on tumor-associated neovasculature but not on normal healthy vasculature. A coordinated expression between PSMA and VEGF has also been demonstrated. PSMA expression has also been observed on the vascular endothelium of other solid tumors such as breast, lung, ovary, kidney, bladder and intestinal tract.

Treatment options for prostate cancer: Following elevation of serum PSA levels and diagnosis of prostate cancer, clinical intervention begins. The primary form of intervention is the use of androgen ablation therapies. While these therapies have been shown to significantly reduce tumor volume there is a frequent recurrence of prostate cancer to a hormone refractory state. Traditional chemotherapeutics have also been used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Thalidomide has been shown to produce clinically effective results. However, it is a combination therapy using thalidomide with taxanes such as paclitaxel that has shown a more significant reduction in prostate tumor growth. A disadvantage to the use of thalidomide and paclitaxel however is limited water solubility. This requires higher doses of the therapeutic agents to serve as efficacious agents against prostate cancers. Recently, docetaxel has been shown to be an effective treatment option for prostate cancer. An attractive property of docetaxel is significantly improved water solubility. Use of nanoparticles as delivery vectors for either single chemotherapeutics or combinational two compound chemotherapeutic loaded nanoparticles (e.g., prednisone and taxanes) can easily be accomplished. In studies performed by Sahoo et al. conjugation of transferrin to paclitaxel containing nanoparticles demonstrated a five fold reduction in the IC₅₀.

Investigation was also conducted on the use of PSMA based antibody therapies. Radiolabelling of PSMA for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer has demonstrated no systemic cytotoxicity and the ability to localize in vivo as well as to bony sites of metastatic disease. PSMA antibodies conjugated to toxins have been shown to be quickly internalized and have eradicated prostate tumors in mice without observations of toxicity. Thus, a combinatorial effect of docetaxel loaded nanoparticles targeted to sites of tumor vasculature using PSMA provides an attractive agent for the treatment of prostate cancer.

TABLE 2 includes various structures, linkers, payloads, functionality of the present invention. Linker name Chemical structure BS3 Bis (sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate

s-EGS Ethylene glycolbis- (sulfosuccinimidyl- succinate)

DSG Disuccinimidyl glutarate

s- EMCS N-[e- maleimido- caproyloxy] sulfosuccinimide ester

BMPS N-[b- maleimidopropyl- oxy]succinimide ester

BM (PEO)₂ 1,8- bismaleimido- diethylene- glycol

PAS Palmitic acid N- hydroxysuccinimide ester

Spacer Linker Length Conjugate name Reactivity Functionality Selectivity (A) Solubility made Payload BS3 Bi Homo 1°   11.4  H₂O IgG Ab S101 amines Thy-1 Ab Curcumin s-EGS Bi Homo 1°   16.1  H₂O Anx A2 S101 amines Ab docetaxel PSMA Ab Transferrin DSG Bi Homo 1°    7.72 DMSO p21 Ab S101 amines s-EMCS Bi Hetero 1°    9.4  H₂O VEGF R2 S101 amines Ab Doxirubicin Thiols Anx A2 Ab TNFa DTT BMPS Bi Hetero 1°    5.9  DMSO Cylochrome S101 amines C Ab Thiols DTT BM Bi Homo Thiols   14.7  H₂O PSMA Ab S101 (PEO)₂ DTT PAS Mono n/a 1° amines ~18   DMSO IgG Ab S101

FIG. 8 is a Western Blot analysis for variation of cross-linking reagent: Panel A, lane 1 represents the use of DSG (water insoluble; homo-bifunctional amine reactive) for selective attachment of murine p21 antibody. Lane 2 represents activated DSG nanoparticles under quenched reaction conditions, note the absence of a detectable band. Lane 3 represents reaction with secondary HRP antibody used for detection of the conjugated reaction (original image displays a faint band). Lane 4 represents the incorporation of EGS (water soluble; homo-bifunctional amine reactive) for the attachment of murine annexin A2 antibody. Lane 5 is the activated EGS nanoparticles under quenched reaction conditions. Lane 6 represents activated EGS nanoparticles reacting with murine secondary HRP used for detection. Panel B: Lane 1 represents the use of BMPS (water insoluble; hetero-bifunctional for amines and sulfdhydryls) for the conjugation of murine cytochrome C. Lane 2 is amine quenched BMPS activated nanoparticles. Lane 3 represents EMCS (water soluble; hetero bifunctional for amines and sulfhydryls) for the conjugation of rabbit VEGF receptor 2 antibody. Lane 4 displays quenched EMCS activated nanoparticles. For the instances of BMPS and EMCS due to the presence of only a single amine reactive site it is not possible to see the presence of secondary HRP reaction due to the extent of the reaction with the given targeting antibody. An increase in the concentration of activated nanoparticles would allow for visulaization of the activated nanoparticle alone.

FIG. 9 is a PSMA expression in human prostate tissue sections. Human prostate microarray slides were probed with murine anti-PSMA antibody. Panels A and B represent high grade gleason scores for normal and cancerous regions respectively. Higher magnification images for these tissue samples are shown in panels C and D. Panels E and F represent low gleason scores for normal and cancerous regions respectively. Higher magnification images for these sections are shown in panels G and H. It is evident that PSMA expression in restricted to cancerous versus normal sections of the tumor mass and that as the gleason score increases there is greater expression of PSMA.

FIG. 10 is a TIRF analysis of zymed mouse anti-PSMA antibody specificity under co-culture conditions. PC-3 cells were co-cultured with LNCaP C4-2 cells fixed for immunocytochemistry. It can be seen from the image that there is a significant amount of cellular reactivity for the LNCap C4-2 cell line and very limited cross reactivity with PC-3 cells. No cellular premeabilization steps were performed for this assay.

FIG. 11 is a PSMA targeted nanoparticles display preferential uptake to LNCaP C4-2 cells over PC-3 cells. Panel A, PSMA targeted nanoparticles were loaded with sulforhodamine 101 (red) and exposed to a co-culture of PC-3 and LNCaP C4-2 cells for 30 minutes under constant rocking motion. Samples were fixed in paraformaldehyde and visualized through laser confocal microscopy. PC-3 cells are shown with yellow arrows, LNCaP C4-2 cells are shown with green arrows. It is evident that there is a preferential uptake of targeted nanoparticles to the LNCaP C4-2 cell line. Panel B, Activated nanoparticles loaded with sulforhodamine 101 were quenched to prevent ligand attachment and exposed to identical co-culture conditions as in panel A. There is no apparent difference in cellular uptake for either PC-3 or LNCaP C4-2 cells.

It is contemplated that any embodiment discussed in this specification can be implemented with respect to any method, kit, reagent, or composition of the invention, and vice versa. Furthermore, compositions of the invention can be used to achieve methods of the invention.

It will be understood that particular embodiments described herein are shown by way of illustration and not as limitations of the invention. The principal features of this invention can be employed in various embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to the specific procedures described herein. Such equivalents are considered to be within the scope of this invention and are covered by the claims.

All publications and patent applications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art to which this invention pertains. All publications and patent applications are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” The use of the term “or” in the claims is used to mean “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and “and/or.” Throughout this application, the term “about” is used to indicate that a value includes the inherent variation of error for the device, the method being employed to determine the value, or the variation that exists among the study subjects.

As used in this specification and claim(s), the words “comprising” (and any form of comprising, such as “comprise” and “comprises”), “having” (and any form of having, such as “have” and “has”), “including” (and any form of including, such as “includes” and “include”) or “containing” (and any form of containing, such as “contains” and “contain”) are inclusive or open-ended and do not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps.

The term “or combinations thereof” as used herein refers to all permutations and combinations of the listed items preceding the term. For example, “A, B, C, or combinations thereof” is intended to include at least one of: A, B, C, AB, AC, BC, or ABC, and if order is important in a particular context, also BA, CA, CB, CBA, BCA, ACB, BAC, or CAB. Continuing with this example, expressly included are combinations that contain repeats of one or more item or term, such as BB, AAA, MB, BBC, AAABCCCC, CBBAAA, CABABB, and so forth. The skilled artisan will understand that typically there is no limit on the number of items or terms in any combination, unless otherwise apparent from the context.

All of the compositions and/or methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the compositions and/or methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

REFERENCES

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method of making a targetable, loadable-nanoparticle comprising: forming a first emulsion comprising a biocompatible polymer in a first solvent and an active agent; preparing a second solution comprising an amphiphilic stabilizing agent in water, a non-solvent and a spacer compound comprising at least one electrophile; forming a second emulsion by mixing the first emulsion and the second solution to form activated, loaded nanoparticles with non-covalently associated spacer compounds; separating the activated, loaded nanoparticles; and binding a targeting agent to the particle at one or more electrophiles on the noncovalently associated spacer compounds.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the spacer is homofunctional, heterofunctional, multifunctional, monoreactive, bi-reactive or multireactive, water soluble, water-insoluble or partially water soluble.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the spacer is defined further as comprising spacers have multiple lengths.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the targeting agent is selected from an antibody, a small molecule, a peptide, a carbohydrate, a protein, a nucleic acid, an aptamer, a second nanoparticle, a cytokine, a chemokine, a lymphokine, a receptor, a lipid, a lectin, a ferrous metal, a magnetic particle, a linker, an isotope and combinations thereof.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the active agent is selected from at least one of an anti-cancer drug, an antibiotic, an antiviral, an antifungal, an antihelminthic, a nutrient, a small molecule, a siRNA, an antioxidant, and an antibody.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the active agent comprises a curcumin or curcuminoid.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoshell comprises at least one of a polyester and or an amphiphilic stabilizing agent.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the polyester is poly-lactic acid, poly glycolic acid, poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid, and combinations thereof.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the amphiphilic stabilizing agent is a polyol.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the polyol is at least one of polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polypropylenediol, polytetrahydrofuran or poly(ethylene oxide)-polypropylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) triblock copolymers.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoshell encapsulates an active agent for controlled intracellular delivery.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein nanoshell composition is used to control the ultimate size and drug delivery rate.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the targeting agent selectively targets the nanocarrier to diseased tissue/cells, thereby minimizing whole body dose.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoshell loaded with an active agent combines a conventional radioisotopes and a chemotherapeutic.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the nanoshell is adapted for controlled release of the active agents by pre-determining the polymeric ratios of lactic to glycolic acid. 